The anti-nuclear campaign in New Zealand substantiated revolutionary societal reform that had begun earlier in the 20th century. Although there was opposition to the movement from conservative factions in society, intense protest, consistent petitioning and increasingly demanding demonstrations resulted in activists creating change within many realms of New Zealand. Attitudinal shifts occurred within the New Zealand public that epitomised the success of the movement. Legislation changes in 1987 officially recognised the aims of the movement and what it had successfully campaigned for. However such revolutionary and substantial change had significant consequences for New Zealand's international relations, especially with the United States. The consequence of such reform and opinion shift resulted in the nuclear-free New Zealand remaining consistent, even with the election of the more conservative National government after the end of David Lange's term. Analysing these diverse consequences and their effects allow historical conclusions to be reached on the significance of this movement to the current New Zealand identity and what has resulted from the campaign.
Shifts in public opinion against nuclear energy issues throughout New Zealand epitomised the success of the movement. The anti-nuclear protest that occurred during the 1970's and 1980's was unique in that it brought almost every faction of society into its struggle against nuclear energy. Groups of individuals that would not usually unite on one common viewpoint were seen to collaborate together to increase the impact and size of the protests. Waterside unions, students, Maori and Pacific groups and environmentally conscious organizations such as Greenpeace and Peace Squadron at some point worked together to increase the unity and hence effectiveness of the movement as a whole. The development of the movement in many different directions meant that it could cater for the needs of many groups in society. Originally the movement itself started off being small and often regarded as radical, however as the public opinion towards nuclear energy and warships began to change there was a substantial increase in the support for a nuclear-free New Zealand. The effect of the public shift can be ascertained using examples of nuclear warship visits. In 1964 the USS Enterprise visited New Zealand with two other nuclear powered warships, however there was little protest, rather there was positive interpretations of the outcomes of this visit. Comparing this to the visit of the US warships 12 years later in 1976, there were mass demonstrations and protest as there was little positive attention surrounding the use of these vessels in New Zealand waters. The change in opinion against the docking of American warships dramatically increased from 32% in 1978 to 78% in 1983, where in 1989 52% of the population would have preferred to break defence ties with America rather than allow nuclear-armed or powered warships into the ports and waters. At least 70% of the population did not want any nuclear armed ships to enter New Zealand by 1989, but fewer felt the need to break defence ties if necessary to attain nuclear-free ports. Even the proposal for a nuclear-free South Pacific gained traction, where by the early 1980s 75% of New Zealanders wanted a policy to end nuclear testing in the Pacific. The steady increase of opinions in favour of the anti-nuclear movement encompasses the essence of the campaign, where ordinary civilians taking direct action on a united front resulted in substantial social reform.
Changes to legislation and government policy ensured survival of a nuclear-free New Zealand in the long-term. When David Lange and the Labour government came into power in 1984 after their overwhelming win at the snap-election, they came into parliament with the expectation of delivering a nuclear-free New Zealand as promised in their campaign. The nuclear issue had largely influenced this campaign, where the public voted largely on who would deliver an anti-nuclear policy. Lange and his administration almost immediately delivered on their promise to New Zealanders with the creation of the 1984 nuclear-free policy. This policy was officially brought into action by January 1985, where it barred the entrance of nuclear-powered or armed ships into New Zealand ports or sailing in its waters. Although this was a step in the direction of a nuclear-free nation, it was an informal policy that was only temporarily in action. The real shift in New Zealand's political history occurred in 1987. The Nuclear-Free Zone, Disarmament and Arms Control Act was passed by the Lange administration, this legislation made New Zealand's territorial sea, land and airspace all nuclear-free. The Act disallowed nuclear powered ships any entry to New Zealand waters, where both partial and fully powered vessels were denied access. Bans on dumping radioactive waste, using nuclear power plants, conducting nuclear research and the creation of nuclear explosives were all prohibited. With the creation of this Act came the establishment of the Public Advisory Committee on Disarmament and Arms Control, who were tasked with advising the foreign affairs department on matters involving the Act. Not only did this Act signal a substantial change in New Zealand's political and international stance on nuclear energy, but it made it much more difficult for future conservative governments to reverse the policy and its terms, where it also encouraged other parties to adopt the very popular nuclear-free stance. The ban on nuclear ships, testing, weapons and usage brought together the aims of the nuclear movement, where overwhelming public support for the change had not only brought the new Labour government into power, but it had forced the administration to respond to the persistent demands for a new legislation. The effect this has had on New Zealand is paramount, where no government has dared to change or challenge this policy due to the constant support for a nuclear-free New Zealand. Even at the time of this protest, governments were forced to consider the opinions and ideas of the anti-nuclear movement as it was pivotal in gaining votes in upcoming elections. The long-term survival of this Act was affirmed with the election of the National government in 1990. Although this traditionally conservative party had originally opposed any nuclear-free legislation it essentially took an opposite approach once the support for the legislation was realized. National reversed its original stance and vowed to keep the nuclear legislation in place if elected, which is what occurred under Prime Minister Jim Bolger. The substantial reform that occurred with the passing of this legislation proved that the movement itself was more than a protest, but was rather a political battle that was only won through persistence and effective lobbying over two decades. The reform that occurred politically with the new law and within the structures of government parties such as National has further shaped the nuclear-free New Zealand that is maintained in the 21st century.
The creation of the nuclear-free legislation negatively impacted New Zealand's foreign relations with pro-nuclear nations. The mass public appreciation for the new legislation meant that it was unlikely to be changed, even if it were damaging to current foreign relations. The pressure successive governments were placed under to produce nuclear-free legislation meant they had to withstand resent at their actions from their traditional allies. When the Labour part officially brought in the policy of nuclear-free New Zealand in 1984, US officials were displeased with the actions of the Lange government. AMerican officials felt that was unreasonable that New Zealand would not let nuclear ships enter their waters when, under the ANZUS agreement, these would be the ships defending them in the event of invasion. The Raegan Administration did not accept the nuclear-free stance as being within the terms of ANZUS although there was no official requirement for naval visits under the agreement. The United States adamantly opposed the nuclear stance adopted by New Zealand, where the naval visits were seen as integral parts of an effective Treaty. The rejection of the USS Buchanan visit in February 1985 signalled to America that New Zealand was serious with their anti-nuclear policy. The Buchanan debacle resulted in New Zealand being portrayed as a 'free-rider' who would accept the benefits of the ANZUS agreement, but would not share the costs of the Treaty. However America could not be seen as backing down to a smaller country and hence let it dictate its nuclear policies, hence in the aftermath of the Buchanan rejection the US cut all military and intelligence ties with New Zealand, where ANZUS was declared 'inoperative'. Subsequently New Zealand was downgraded from an 'ally' to that of a 'friend'. The ceasing of military communication included stopping naval exercises between the two nations, where the US was not going to create a nuclear-free navy to accommodate New Zealand. Although the core of ANZUS remained intact, in 1986 America withdrew the security and defence commitment. To further isolate New Zealand from American alliance benefits, the Raegan administration placed a ban on security assistance and arms export to the country. Although the American response can be seen in relevance to the global context of communist expansion and the caution surrounding the Soviet Union, the actions taken by the Lange government to create a nuclear-free New Zealand ruptured traditional alliances and essentially damaged the foreign relations between New Zealand and America.
The effect of the ANZUS breakdown will be analysed in the primary document pages.
The effect of New Zealand's anti-nuclear movement is therefore one that can be analysed through its significant impact on the social, political and international realms of society. Although there were negative outcomes in relation to foreign relationships, the passing of the nuclear-free policy and legislation satisfied the demands of protestors that had actively campaigned for two decades against nuclear energy. The historical significance of these changes and the movement as a whole will be discussed in the page dedicated to historical conclusions.
Shifts in public opinion against nuclear energy issues throughout New Zealand epitomised the success of the movement. The anti-nuclear protest that occurred during the 1970's and 1980's was unique in that it brought almost every faction of society into its struggle against nuclear energy. Groups of individuals that would not usually unite on one common viewpoint were seen to collaborate together to increase the impact and size of the protests. Waterside unions, students, Maori and Pacific groups and environmentally conscious organizations such as Greenpeace and Peace Squadron at some point worked together to increase the unity and hence effectiveness of the movement as a whole. The development of the movement in many different directions meant that it could cater for the needs of many groups in society. Originally the movement itself started off being small and often regarded as radical, however as the public opinion towards nuclear energy and warships began to change there was a substantial increase in the support for a nuclear-free New Zealand. The effect of the public shift can be ascertained using examples of nuclear warship visits. In 1964 the USS Enterprise visited New Zealand with two other nuclear powered warships, however there was little protest, rather there was positive interpretations of the outcomes of this visit. Comparing this to the visit of the US warships 12 years later in 1976, there were mass demonstrations and protest as there was little positive attention surrounding the use of these vessels in New Zealand waters. The change in opinion against the docking of American warships dramatically increased from 32% in 1978 to 78% in 1983, where in 1989 52% of the population would have preferred to break defence ties with America rather than allow nuclear-armed or powered warships into the ports and waters. At least 70% of the population did not want any nuclear armed ships to enter New Zealand by 1989, but fewer felt the need to break defence ties if necessary to attain nuclear-free ports. Even the proposal for a nuclear-free South Pacific gained traction, where by the early 1980s 75% of New Zealanders wanted a policy to end nuclear testing in the Pacific. The steady increase of opinions in favour of the anti-nuclear movement encompasses the essence of the campaign, where ordinary civilians taking direct action on a united front resulted in substantial social reform.
Changes to legislation and government policy ensured survival of a nuclear-free New Zealand in the long-term. When David Lange and the Labour government came into power in 1984 after their overwhelming win at the snap-election, they came into parliament with the expectation of delivering a nuclear-free New Zealand as promised in their campaign. The nuclear issue had largely influenced this campaign, where the public voted largely on who would deliver an anti-nuclear policy. Lange and his administration almost immediately delivered on their promise to New Zealanders with the creation of the 1984 nuclear-free policy. This policy was officially brought into action by January 1985, where it barred the entrance of nuclear-powered or armed ships into New Zealand ports or sailing in its waters. Although this was a step in the direction of a nuclear-free nation, it was an informal policy that was only temporarily in action. The real shift in New Zealand's political history occurred in 1987. The Nuclear-Free Zone, Disarmament and Arms Control Act was passed by the Lange administration, this legislation made New Zealand's territorial sea, land and airspace all nuclear-free. The Act disallowed nuclear powered ships any entry to New Zealand waters, where both partial and fully powered vessels were denied access. Bans on dumping radioactive waste, using nuclear power plants, conducting nuclear research and the creation of nuclear explosives were all prohibited. With the creation of this Act came the establishment of the Public Advisory Committee on Disarmament and Arms Control, who were tasked with advising the foreign affairs department on matters involving the Act. Not only did this Act signal a substantial change in New Zealand's political and international stance on nuclear energy, but it made it much more difficult for future conservative governments to reverse the policy and its terms, where it also encouraged other parties to adopt the very popular nuclear-free stance. The ban on nuclear ships, testing, weapons and usage brought together the aims of the nuclear movement, where overwhelming public support for the change had not only brought the new Labour government into power, but it had forced the administration to respond to the persistent demands for a new legislation. The effect this has had on New Zealand is paramount, where no government has dared to change or challenge this policy due to the constant support for a nuclear-free New Zealand. Even at the time of this protest, governments were forced to consider the opinions and ideas of the anti-nuclear movement as it was pivotal in gaining votes in upcoming elections. The long-term survival of this Act was affirmed with the election of the National government in 1990. Although this traditionally conservative party had originally opposed any nuclear-free legislation it essentially took an opposite approach once the support for the legislation was realized. National reversed its original stance and vowed to keep the nuclear legislation in place if elected, which is what occurred under Prime Minister Jim Bolger. The substantial reform that occurred with the passing of this legislation proved that the movement itself was more than a protest, but was rather a political battle that was only won through persistence and effective lobbying over two decades. The reform that occurred politically with the new law and within the structures of government parties such as National has further shaped the nuclear-free New Zealand that is maintained in the 21st century.
The creation of the nuclear-free legislation negatively impacted New Zealand's foreign relations with pro-nuclear nations. The mass public appreciation for the new legislation meant that it was unlikely to be changed, even if it were damaging to current foreign relations. The pressure successive governments were placed under to produce nuclear-free legislation meant they had to withstand resent at their actions from their traditional allies. When the Labour part officially brought in the policy of nuclear-free New Zealand in 1984, US officials were displeased with the actions of the Lange government. AMerican officials felt that was unreasonable that New Zealand would not let nuclear ships enter their waters when, under the ANZUS agreement, these would be the ships defending them in the event of invasion. The Raegan Administration did not accept the nuclear-free stance as being within the terms of ANZUS although there was no official requirement for naval visits under the agreement. The United States adamantly opposed the nuclear stance adopted by New Zealand, where the naval visits were seen as integral parts of an effective Treaty. The rejection of the USS Buchanan visit in February 1985 signalled to America that New Zealand was serious with their anti-nuclear policy. The Buchanan debacle resulted in New Zealand being portrayed as a 'free-rider' who would accept the benefits of the ANZUS agreement, but would not share the costs of the Treaty. However America could not be seen as backing down to a smaller country and hence let it dictate its nuclear policies, hence in the aftermath of the Buchanan rejection the US cut all military and intelligence ties with New Zealand, where ANZUS was declared 'inoperative'. Subsequently New Zealand was downgraded from an 'ally' to that of a 'friend'. The ceasing of military communication included stopping naval exercises between the two nations, where the US was not going to create a nuclear-free navy to accommodate New Zealand. Although the core of ANZUS remained intact, in 1986 America withdrew the security and defence commitment. To further isolate New Zealand from American alliance benefits, the Raegan administration placed a ban on security assistance and arms export to the country. Although the American response can be seen in relevance to the global context of communist expansion and the caution surrounding the Soviet Union, the actions taken by the Lange government to create a nuclear-free New Zealand ruptured traditional alliances and essentially damaged the foreign relations between New Zealand and America.
The effect of the ANZUS breakdown will be analysed in the primary document pages.
The effect of New Zealand's anti-nuclear movement is therefore one that can be analysed through its significant impact on the social, political and international realms of society. Although there were negative outcomes in relation to foreign relationships, the passing of the nuclear-free policy and legislation satisfied the demands of protestors that had actively campaigned for two decades against nuclear energy. The historical significance of these changes and the movement as a whole will be discussed in the page dedicated to historical conclusions.